Invasion

For a century, propagandists have called immigrants an invading army or a planned “replacement,” so that harsh laws and even violence feel like self-defense. The idea shaped the 1924 quotas that kept Jewish refugees waiting in 1939, was cited by gunmen in 2019 and 2022, and returned in official documents in 2025.

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The Carousel

Saturday in El Paso

On Saturday, August 3, 2019, a 21-year-old man walked into a Walmart in El Paso, Texas, about five miles from the Mexican border, carrying a rifle. About 20 minutes before the shooting started, a document appeared on an online message board. It called the attack a response to the “Hispanic invasion of Texas.” It also said: “I am simply defending my country from cultural and ethnic replacement brought on by an invasion.”²

He killed 23 people and injured 22 more. He later admitted that he chose El Paso, a border city, to scare Mexican and other Hispanic immigrants away from the United States. He received 90 consecutive life sentences in federal court¹ and, in April 2025, life without parole in state court²³.

Look at the two words he leaned on. “Invasion” turns people who move into an army. “Replacement” turns births, marriages, and new neighbors into a plan carried out by an enemy. Put together, they make killing sound like defense. Neither idea started with him. A century earlier, respected men put the same picture in print, and Congress wrote it into law.

1916: A Book About Being Replaced

In the early 1900s, immigration from southern and eastern Europe surged. From 1900 to 1909, about 1.93 million people arrived from Italy and 1.5 million from the Russian Empire¹⁴. Senator David Reed later described the worry as “foreign colonies” of people “who speak a foreign language and live a foreign life.”⁸

In 1916, Madison Grant published The Passing of the Great Race. His title page listed him as chairman of the New York Zoological Society and a trustee of the American Museum of Natural History³. Henry Fairfield Osborn wrote the preface, and he named the danger in one line: “The gradual dying out among our people of those hereditary traits through which the principles of our religious, political, and social foundations were laid down, and their insidious replacement by traits of less noble character.”³

Grant sorted Europeans into “races” and put the “Nordic” race of northern Europe at the top⁴. He wrote that poorer old-stock Americans would not have children “to compete in the labor market with the Slovak, the Italian, the Syrian and the Jew.”⁴ Then he wrote about New York: “The man of the old stock is being crowded out of many country districts by these foreigners just as he is to-day being literally driven off the streets of New York City by the swarms of Polish Jews.” He warned of “replacement of a higher by a lower type here in America.” And he blamed Americans’ own ideals for letting it happen: “while he is being elbowed out of his own home the American looks calmly abroad and urges on others the suicidal ethics which are exterminating his own race.”³

Notice what the words do. Nobody in Grant’s story attacks anyone. Families have children and take jobs. But “crowded out,” “elbowed out of his own home,” and “exterminating” are the language of a siege. The reader is cast as the defender of a home under attack. In a 1921 edition, Grant made the picture military: if Nordic stock mixed or died out, “the citadel of civilization will fall for mere lack of defenders.”⁴

Grant also took credit for what came next. In that 1921 edition he wrote that one effect of his book was “the decision of the Congress of the United States to adopt discriminatory and restrictive measures against the immigration of undesirable races and peoples.”⁴

1924: Congress Shuts the Door

Representative Albert Johnson of Washington chaired the House immigration committee from 1919. In 1923 and 1924 he was also president of the Eugenics Research Association⁶.

In April 1920, Johnson’s committee appointed Harry Laughlin of the Eugenics Record Office its “expert eugenics agent.” On November 21, 1922, Laughlin presented what he called “a study in comparative degeneracy,” built on counts of inmates in custodial institutions, sorted by race and nativity. His conclusion: “the recent immigrants, as a whole, present a higher percentage of inborn socially inadequate qualities than do the older stocks.” The key word was “inborn.” As Laughlin put it at the same hearing: “Native intelligence does not depend upon opportunity or education. It is inborn; consequently it is transmitted from generation to generation.”⁵ That turned a debate about newcomers into a warning about their grandchildren.

Congress already had better numbers. In 1911, its own Immigration Commission had reported: “No satisfactory evidence has yet been produced to show that immigration has resulted in an increase in crime disproportionate to the increase in adult population.” The same report found immigrants “less prone to commit crime than are native Americans,” though it found more crime among their American-born children, mostly in cities.¹⁵

In December 1923, President Calvin Coolidge told Congress: “America must be kept American.”⁹ On April 9, 1924, Senator Ellison DuRant Smith of South Carolina rose in the Senate debate. “I would like for the Members of the Senate to read that book just recently published by Madison Grant,” he said. “Thank God we have in America perhaps the largest percentage of any country in the world of the pure, unadulterated Anglo-Saxon stock; certainly the greatest of any nation in the Nordic breed.” “It is the breed of the dog in which I am interested.” And he gave the remedy: “The time has come when we should shut the door.”⁷

Coolidge signed the act on May 26, 1924¹⁰. It set each nationality’s yearly quota at 2 percent of the people born in that country who lived in the United States in 1890¹⁰. The year mattered. Most Italian and Russian immigrants had arrived after 1890¹⁴. The law also barred immigrants who were ineligible for citizenship, which shut out Japanese and other Asian immigrants¹¹.

Senator David Reed of Pennsylvania, the bill’s Senate sponsor, explained it in The New York Times on April 27, 1924, under the headline “America of the Melting Pot Comes to End.” The subhead said its chief aim was “to Preserve Racial Type as It Exists Here Today.” Reed wrote that unless immigration was restrained, “she will be overwhelmed by a vast migration of peoples from the war-stricken countries of Europe.” Then he stated the goal: “The racial composition of America at the present time thus is made permanent.”⁸ Decades later, the State Department’s own historians summed it up: “In all of its parts, the most basic purpose of the 1924 Immigration Act was to preserve the ideal of U.S. homogeneity.”¹¹

What the Quotas Did

For the year starting July 1, 1924, the quotas added up to 164,667 places. Germany received 51,227, Great Britain and Northern Ireland 34,007, and the Irish Free State 28,567. Italy received 3,845, Poland 5,982, and Russia 2,248.¹⁰ From 1900 to 1909, about 193,000 people a year had come from Italy¹⁴.

The Bureau of Immigration counted arrivals by its own racial categories, and it listed Jewish immigrants as “Hebrew.” In the year ending June 30, 1921, it admitted 119,036 Jewish immigrants and 222,496 Italian immigrants¹². In the year ending June 30, 1925, the first full year under the new law, it admitted 10,292 Jewish immigrants and 7,296 Italian immigrants¹³. That is a drop of more than 90 percent for both.

The quotas were still in force when Jews tried to flee Nazi Germany. In May 1939, Laughlin submitted a report to the New York State Chamber of Commerce titled “Conquest by Immigration”¹⁶. The Jewish Telegraphic Agency reported that it called for cutting quotas by 60 percent and for “strict ‘racial’ selection” of immigrants; a group of scientists that included Franz Boas urged the Chamber to repudiate it¹⁷.

That same month, on May 13, 1939, the German liner St. Louis sailed from Hamburg for Havana with 937 passengers, almost all of them Jews fleeing the Nazi regime. Most had applied for U.S. visas and planned to wait in Cuba. Cuba refused to let most of them land. Sailing so close to Florida that they could see the lights of Miami, some passengers cabled President Franklin Roosevelt. He never answered. A State Department telegram told them to “await their turns on the waiting list.” That year’s combined German and Austrian quota was 27,370, and the waiting list ran years long.¹⁸

The St. Louis returned to Europe, where four countries took in the passengers. When Germany conquered western Europe in 1940, 532 of the passengers were trapped. In the end, 254 St. Louis passengers were killed in the Holocaust.¹⁸

2011 to 2022: The Word Picks Up a Gun

In 2011, the French writer Renaud Camus published a book called The Great Replacement²⁰. He has summed it up this way: “The great replacement is very simple. You have one people, and in the space of a generation you have a different people.”²¹ The Associated Press described the theory as one that “argues there is a plot by elites to replace whites with non-white immigrants.”²

This is Grant’s idea with one change. Grant blamed birth rates and “suicidal ethics.” The new version adds a plotter. If someone is doing this to you on purpose, it is an attack, and an attack invites a defense.

On March 15, 2019, a gunman killed 51 people at two mosques in Christchurch, New Zealand²². Minutes before, he had sent out a 74-page manifesto titled “The Great Replacement.”²⁰²² The judge who sentenced him to life without parole described how he came to plan violence against people he called “the invaders,” “in particular those of the Muslim faith.”²²

Months later, the El Paso gunman’s post opened with support for the Christchurch killer, the AP reported².

On May 14, 2022, an 18-year-old drove to a Tops supermarket in Buffalo, New York. He picked it because its zip code had the highest share of Black residents within reach of his home. He killed 10 Black people and wounded three others. According to the FBI’s sworn affidavit, his rifle bore the words “The Great Replacement,” and his written plan called Black people “replacers” who “seek to occupy my peoples [sic] lands and ethnically replace my own people.” He described himself as “a White man seeking to protect and serve my community.”²⁴²⁵

He pleaded guilty to state charges and was sentenced to life without parole in 2023²⁶. His federal hate crimes trial, in which prosecutors seek the death penalty, began final jury selection in October 2026²⁷. The people who paid in these attacks were worshippers at Friday prayers and people buying groceries. None of them had invaded anything.

The Pattern

The move comes in two versions. One calls immigrants an army: an “invasion.” The other calls population change a plan: a “replacement.” Both do the same job. They turn people who are moving, working, marrying, and raising children into enemy fighters, and they turn the listener into a defender.

Once a reader accepts the frame, the rest follows. Nobody negotiates with an invading army or gives it a hearing. You shut the door, as Senator Smith urged in 1924, or you reach for wartime powers. A few people go further and pick up a gun, and they describe it, in their own words, as defense.

The frame also hides the numbers. In 1911, Congress’s own commission found immigrants less prone to crime than native-born Americans¹⁵. More than a century later, a study of Texas arrest records found “considerably lower felony arrest rates among undocumented immigrants compared to legal immigrants and native-born US citizens.”³⁹ An invasion story runs on a few terrible cases, told again and again, in place of the rate.

The Rerun

In its 2024 platform, dated July 8, 2024, the Republican Party wrote: “We must not allow Biden’s Migrant Invasion to alter our Country.” It promised to deport “the millions of illegal Migrants who Joe Biden has deliberately encouraged to invade our Country.”²⁸

On January 20, 2025, President Donald Trump said in his inaugural address: “I will send troops to the southern border to repel the disastrous invasion of our country.”²⁹ The same day he signed a proclamation that declared “that an invasion is ongoing at the southern border” and restricted people “engaged in the invasion” from using the asylum law³⁰.

On March 15, 2025, he invoked the Alien Enemies Act of 1798 against the Venezuelan gang Tren de Aragua³⁷. The proclamation said: “Evidence irrefutably demonstrates that TdA has invaded the United States and continues to invade, attempt to invade, and threaten to invade the country.” It declared that Venezuelan members of the gang aged 14 or older were “liable to be apprehended, restrained, secured, and removed as Alien Enemies.”³¹ Before 2025, the law had been used during the War of 1812 and the two world wars³³. Hours after the invocation, the government flew 238 Venezuelan men to CECOT, a maximum-security prison in El Salvador³².

The government’s own records tell a different story about who was on those planes. Data obtained by ProPublica and The Texas Tribune showed that officials knew only 32 of the 238 men had been convicted of U.S. crimes, mostly nonviolent ones, and only six of violent crimes. For 130 of them, the only violation listed was of immigration law.³² In April 2025, the National Intelligence Council assessed that “the Maduro regime probably does not have a policy of cooperating with TDA and is not directing TDA movement to and operations in the United States.”³⁷

Then came the courts. Judge Fernando Rodriguez Jr. of the Southern District of Texas, a Trump appointee³⁵, studied what “invasion” meant in 1798. He found that it meant “an entry into the nation’s territory by a military force or an organized, armed force, with the purpose of conquering or obtaining control over territory.” The proclamation, he wrote, “makes no reference to and in no manner suggests” such a threat, so the invocation “exceeds the scope of the statute and, as a result, is unlawful.”³⁴ The Supreme Court ruled separately that 24 hours of notice, with no information on how to contest removal, “surely does not pass muster.”³⁶

In September 2025, a panel of the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals ruled 2 to 1 that “the findings do not support that an invasion or a predatory incursion has occurred.”³⁷ The full court then vacated that ruling to rehear the case, and in August 2026 it dismissed the appeal as moot because the government had already removed the named men under ordinary immigration law. That left no binding appeals court ruling on whether the invocation was lawful. Law professor Steve Vladeck writes that since March 15, 2025, “every public indication is that no one has been removed from the United States under the AEA.”³⁸

None of these documents mentions race, and nothing in the record shows that their authors meant to echo Grant or anyone else. The record shows the word, what it was used to unlock, and what judges and the government’s own data found when they checked.

Their Defense

The 1916 book’s preface insisted the cause was “not a matter either of racial pride or of racial prejudice; it is a matter of love of country.”³ Senator Reed defended the tilt toward northwestern Europe as fair: “it is fair that it should do so, because 75 per cent. of us who are now here owe our origin to immigrants from these same countries.”⁸

Renaud Camus told AFP after Christchurch: “I am totally non-violent.” He called the shootings “appalling, criminal, disastrous and idiotic terrorist acts,” and he called the gunman’s use of his title “blatant plagiarism... of a phrase that doesn’t belong to him and he doesn’t understand.”²⁰ AFP also reported that in 2015 he had been convicted of inciting hatred and violence against Muslims²⁰.

The administration’s defense rests on presidential power and on danger. The proclamation called it “my solemn duty to protect the American people from the devastating effects of this invasion.”³¹ After the appeals court ruling, White House spokesperson Abigail Jackson said: “The authority to conduct national security operations in defense of the United States and to remove terrorists from the United States rests solely with the President.”³⁷ Asked about the records, Department of Homeland Security Assistant Secretary Tricia McLaughlin said: “These individuals categorized as ‘non-criminals’ are actually terrorists, human rights abusers, gang members and more,” and “they just don’t have a rap sheet in the U.S.” ProPublica reported that she offered no evidence.³²

Each defense has the same shape. The speaker is protecting someone. That is what the frame is built to do.

How Not to Fall for It

Ask where the army is. A federal judge, reading the 1798 law, defined an invasion as an organized, armed force entering to conquer or take control of territory³⁴. When a post calls people an invasion, ask who commands them and what territory they are taking.

Ask how often it actually happens. One terrible case is a story, not a statistic.

When you hear “replacement,” ask who is supposedly doing the replacing. A birth, a marriage, or a new neighbor is not a battle plan.

Ask what the word unlocks. “Invasion” is a war word, and it gets used to justify troops and skipped hearings. The El Paso and Buffalo gunmen both described their attacks as defense²²⁴.

Decent people believed Grant because he wrote with the authority of a museum trustee and a zoological society chairman, and because the change around them was real. Moving to a new country is not an attack, and saying so plainly takes the power out of the word.

Sources

1. 1Texas Man Sentenced to 90 Consecutive Life Sentences for 2019 Mass Shooting at Walmart in El Paso, Texas, Killing 23 People and Injuring 22 Others. U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Public Affairs (Press Release 23-736). 2023-07-07. justice.gov/archives/opa/pr/texas-man-sentenced-90-consecutive-life-se
2. 2El Paso suspect appears to have posted anti-immigrant screed. Associated Press, via PBS NewsHour. 2019-08-04. pbs.org/newshour/nation/el-paso-suspect-appears-to-have-posted-anti-im
3. 3The Passing of the Great Race; or, The Racial Basis of European History (first edition). Madison Grant, Charles Scribner's Sons; scan via Internet Archive. 1916. archive.org/details/passinggreatrac01grangoog
4. 4The Passing of the Great Race (fourth revised edition). Madison Grant, Charles Scribner's Sons; scan via Internet Archive. 1921. archive.org/details/passingofgreatra0000madi_u6a4
5. 5Analysis of America's Modern Melting Pot: Hearings Before the Committee on Immigration and Naturalization, House of Representatives, 67th Congress, 3rd Session, November 21, 1922 (Serial 7-C). U.S. Government Printing Office; scan via Internet Archive. 1922-11-21. archive.org/details/analysisofameric00unit
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7. 7"Shut the Door": A Senator Speaks for Immigration Restriction (speech of Sen. Ellison DuRant Smith, April 9, 1924, Congressional Record vol. 65, 5961 to 5962). History Matters, George Mason University (transcription), mirrored by Vancouver Island University. 1924-04-09. web.viu.ca/davies/H322%20Between%20the%20Wars/ShutTheDoor.1924.htm
8. 8America of the Melting Pot Comes to End, by David A. Reed. The New York Times, p. XX3 (ProQuest scan). 1924-04-27. faculty.fiu.edu/~revellk/pad3802/Reed.pdf
9. 9First Annual Message (Calvin Coolidge). The American Presidency Project, UC Santa Barbara. 1923-12-06. presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/first-annual-message-20
10. 10Proclamation 1703: Establishing Nationality Quota of Aliens Allowed Entry During Fiscal Year 1924-1925. The American Presidency Project, UC Santa Barbara. 1924-06-30. presidency.ucsb.edu/node/377162
11. 11The Immigration Act of 1924 (The Johnson-Reed Act). U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian. accessed 2026-11-11. history.state.gov/milestones/1921-1936/immigration-act
12. 12Annual Report of the Commissioner General of Immigration, fiscal year ended June 30, 1921, Table IV. U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Immigration; scan via Internet Archive. 1921. archive.org/details/annualreportofco1921unit
13. 13Annual Report of the Commissioner General of Immigration, fiscal year ended June 30, 1925, Table 7. U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Immigration; scan via Internet Archive. 1925. archive.org/details/annualreportofco1925unit
14. 14Yearbook of Immigration Statistics 2019, Table 2: Persons Obtaining Lawful Permanent Resident Status by Region and Selected Country of Last Residence, Fiscal Years 1820 to 2019. U.S. Department of Homeland Security, Office of Homeland Security Statistics. 2019. ohss.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/2023-12/yearbook_immigration_statisti
15. 15Reports of the Immigration Commission, Vol. 36: Immigration and Crime (S. Doc. No. 750, 61st Cong., 3d sess.). U.S. Government Printing Office; scan via Internet Archive. 1911. archive.org/details/reportsimmigrat08dillgoog
16. 16A report of the special committee on immigration and naturalization submitting a research on conquest by immigration (Harry H. Laughlin). New York Chamber of Commerce; catalog record, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Scientific Digital Repository. 1939-05-15. repository.cshl.edu/id/eprint/35860/
17. 17Scientists Call on State Commerce Chamber to Repudiate Report on Immigration. Jewish Telegraphic Agency. 1939-07-20. jta.org/archive/scientists-call-on-state-commerce-chamber-to-repudiate
18. 18Voyage of the St. Louis. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Holocaust Encyclopedia. 2024-06-18. encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/voyage-of-the-st-louis
19. 19Jewish refugees aboard the MS St. Louis attempt to communicate with friends and relatives in Cuba (Photograph 26989). United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, courtesy of National Archives (306-NT-648-E-5). 1939-06-03. collections.ushmm.org/search/catalog/pa26989
20. 20'Great Replacement' writer denounces NZ mosque shooting. Agence France-Presse, via Prothom Alo. 2019-03-16. en.prothomalo.com/international/Great-Replacement-writer-denounces-NZ-
21. 21The French Origins of "You Will Not Replace Us" (Thomas Chatterton Williams). The New Yorker. 2017-11-27. newyorker.com/magazine/2017/12/04/the-french-origins-of-you-will-not-r
22. 22R v Tarrant [2020] NZHC 2192, Sentencing Remarks of Mander J. High Court of New Zealand. 2020-08-27. courtsofnz.govt.nz/assets/cases/R-v-Tarrant-sentencing-remarks-2020082
23. 23El Paso Walmart shooter pleads guilty to state charges, sentenced to life in prison. WJLA (Sinclair National Desk). 2025-04-21. wjla.com/news/nation-world/el-paso-walmart-shooter-to-plead-guilty-to-
24. 24United States v. Payton Gendron, Criminal Complaint and FBI Affidavit, Case No. 22-mj-124 (W.D.N.Y.). U.S. Department of Justice. 2022-06-15. justice.gov/opa/press-release/file/1513131/download
25. 25Federal Grand Jury Indicts Accused Tops Shooter on Federal Hate Crimes and Firearms Charges. U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Public Affairs (Press Release 22-751). 2022-07-14. justice.gov/opa/pr/federal-grand-jury-indicts-accused-tops-shooter-fed
26. 26Gunman who killed 10 people at a Buffalo supermarket has been sentenced to life (Jasmine Garsd). NPR, via KUNC. 2023-02-15. kunc.org/2023-02-15/gunman-who-killed-10-people-at-a-buffalo-supermark
27. 27Final jury selection begins in federal hate crimes trial over Buffalo, NY, supermarket shooting. Associated Press, via Spectrum News. 2026-10-13. spectrumlocalnews.com/nys/buffalo/news/2026/10/13/final-jury-selection
28. 282024 Republican Party Platform. The American Presidency Project, UC Santa Barbara. 2024-07-08. presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/2024-republican-party-platform
29. 29January 20, 2025: Inaugural Address (Donald J. Trump). Miller Center, University of Virginia. 2025-01-20. millercenter.org/the-presidency/presidential-speeches/january-20-2025-
30. 30Proclamation 10888: Guaranteeing the States Protection Against Invasion (signed January 20, 2025). Federal Register, 90 FR 8333. 2025-01-29. federalregister.gov/documents/2025/01/29/2025-01951/guaranteeing-the-s
31. 31Proclamation 10903: Invocation of the Alien Enemies Act Regarding the Invasion of the United States by Tren de Aragua (signed March 14, 2025). Federal Register, 90 FR 13033. 2025-03-20. federalregister.gov/documents/2025/03/20/2025-04865/invocation-of-the-
32. 32Trump Administration Knew Vast Majority of Venezuelans Sent to Salvadoran Prison Had Not Been Convicted of U.S. Crimes. ProPublica and The Texas Tribune. 2025-05-30. propublica.org/article/trump-el-salvador-deportees-criminal-conviction
33. 33The Alien Enemy Act: History and Potential Use to Remove Members of International Criminal Cartels (LSB11269). Congressional Research Service. 2025-04-02. congress.gov/crs_external_products/LSB/PDF/LSB11269/LSB11269.4.pdf
34. 34J.A.V. v. Trump, No. 1:25-CV-072, Order and Opinion (Doc. 58). U.S. District Court, Southern District of Texas (via Justia). 2025-05-01. cases.justia.com/federal/district-courts/texas/txsdce/1:2025cv00072/20
35. 35Trump-appointed federal judge blocks use of Alien Enemies Act for Venezuelans in South Texas (Sergio Martinez-Beltran). NPR, via Texas Public Radio. 2025-05-01. tpr.org/border-immigration/2025-05-01/trump-appointed-federal-judge-bl
36. 36A.A.R.P. v. Trump, No. 24A1007, 605 U.S. ___ (per curiam). Supreme Court of the United States. 2025-05-16. supremecourt.gov/opinions/24pdf/24a1007_g2bh.pdf
37. 37Why did a court rule that Trump can't deport Tren de Aragua members using the Alien Enemies Act? (Maria Ramirez Uribe). PolitiFact, Poynter Institute. 2025-09-03. politifact.com/article/2025/sep/03/Tren-de-Aragua-deportations-Alien-E
38. 38The End of the Alien Enemies Act Litigation? (One First, No. 244). Steve Vladeck, One First newsletter. 2026-08-17. stevevladeck.com/p/244-the-end-of-the-alien-enemies
39. 39Comparing crime rates between undocumented immigrants, legal immigrants, and native-born US citizens in Texas (Light, He, and Robey). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 117, no. 51, pp. 32340 to 32347. 2020-12-22. doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2014704117

Image Credits

• Jewish refugees aboard the MS St. Louis attempt to communicate with friends and relatives in Cuba. Unknown photographer; National Archives and Records Administration, College Park (306-NT-648-E-5). 1939-06-03. Public domain (USHMM Photo Archives record: "Copyright: Public Domain"; photo source National Archives). Source
• The Passing of the Great Race, title page of the first edition. Madison Grant; Charles Scribner's Sons (scan by Google from a University of Michigan copy). 1916. Public domain (published in the U.S. in 1916). Source
• Johnson, Albert. Rep. from Washington. Harris & Ewing, photographer. 1914. No known restrictions on publication (Library of Congress, Harris & Ewing Collection); downscaled copy via Wikimedia Commons. Source
• The Only Way to Handle It (illustration for "An Alien Anti-Dumping Bill," The Literary Digest, May 7, 1921, p. 13, reprinting a Providence Evening Bulletin cartoon). Hallahan. 1921. No known restrictions on publication (Library of Congress); published 1921, public domain in the U.S.. Source
• Proclamation 10903 of March 14, 2025, Federal Register vol. 90, no. 53, page 13033. Executive Office of the President; Office of the Federal Register. 2025-03-20. Public domain (U.S. government work); page rendered from the govinfo PDF. Source